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The Adal Sultanate, also known as the Adal Empire or Barr Saʿad dīn (alt. spelling Adel Sultanate, Adal Sultanate) (), was a medieval Sunni Muslim empire which was located in the Horn of Africa. It was founded by Sabr ad-Din III on the Harar plateau in Adal after the fall of the Sultanate of Ifat. The kingdom flourished to 1577.. At its height, the polity under Sultan Badlay controlled the territory stretching from Cape Guardafui in Somalia to the port city of Suakin in Sudan.
The empire's frequent wars with its Christian rival, the Solomonic Dynasty of Abyssinia, during the 15th and 16th centuries, led by important early figures such as Jamal ad-Din II, Badlay, and Mahfuz, would earn the sovereigns of Adal a reputation in the Islamic World as one of saints, and were as a result regularly supplied with arms, horses and other articles of war. (2025). 9789361841996, True Sign Publishing House. ISBN 9789361841996 In the 16th century under the leadership of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi and his successor Nur ibn Mujahid, Adal embarked on the Conquest of Abyssinia deploying and cannons. The war would eventually draw in the Portuguese and . The Adalites maintained a strong relationship with the Ottomans in particular.
The Adal Empire had a string of important ports and inland cities such as Harar, Berbera, Zeila, Abasa, Amud, Dakkar and many others, which flourished under its reign with courtyard, , , defensive wall, and were integrated into the commercial network that tied the kingdoms and empires of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean together. Adal acquired its wealth through the trade of millet, cattle, , slaves, gold, barley, ivory and other commodities. The cities of the empire imported intricately coloured glass bracelets and celadon wares from the Ming Dynasty for palace and home decorationThe Archaeology of Islam in Sub Saharan Africa, p. 72/73 while its merchants used currencies such as and during commercial transactions. The Sultanate of Adal was alternatively known as the federation of Zeila and in 1577 moved its capital to Asaita.
Locally the empire was known to the Muslims as Barr Sa'ad ad-din meaning "The country of Sa'ad ad-din" in reference to the Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din II, who was killed in Zeila while fighting the Ethiopian Emperor Dawit I.The "Futuh al-Habasa" : the writing of history, war and society in the "Bar Sa'ad ad-din" (Ethiopia, 16th century)Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa, 1856; edited with additional material by Gordon Waterfield (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 75.
In 1288, the region of Adal was conquered by the Ifat Sultanate. Despite being incorporated into the Ifat Sultanate, Adal managed to maintain a source of independence under Walashma dynasty rule, alongside the provinces of Gidaya, Dawaro, Sawans, Bali, and Fatagar. In 1332, Adal was invaded by the Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I. His soldiers were said to have ravaged the province.
In the fourteenth century Haqq ad-Din II transferred Ifat's capital to the Harar plateau thus he is regarded by some to be the true founder of the Adal Sultanate. In the late 14th century, the Ethiopian Emperor Dawit I collected a large army, branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and invaded Adal. After much war, Adal's troops were defeated in 1403 or 1410Al-Maqrizi gives the former date, while the Walashma chronicle gives the latter. (under Emperor Dawit I or Emperor Yeshaq I, respectively), during which the Walashma dynasty ruler, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was captured and executed in Zeila, which was sacked. His children and the remainder of the Walashma dynasty would flee to Yemen where they would live in exile until 1415.Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.57Budge, A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, 1928 (Oosterhout, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications, 1970), p. 302. According to Harari language tradition numerous Argobba had fled Ifat and settled around Harar in the Aw Abdal lowlands during their conflict with Abyssinia in the fifteenth century, a gate was thus named after them called the Argoberi.
Later on in the campaign, the Adalites were struck by a catastrophe when Sultan Mansur and his brother Muhammad were captured in battle by the Solomonids. Mansur was immediately succeeded by the youngest brother of the family Jamal ad-Din II. Sultan Jamal reorganized the army into a formidable force and defeated the Solomonic armies at Bale, Yedeya and Jazja. Emperor Yeshaq I responded by gathering a large army and invaded the cities of Yedeya and Jazja, but was repulsed by the soldiers of Jamal. Following this success, Jamal organized another successful attack against the Solomonic forces and inflicted heavy casualties in what was reportedly the largest Adalite army ever fielded. As a result, Yeshaq and his men fled to the Blue Nile region over the next five months, while Jamal ad Din's forces pursued them and looted much gold on the way, although no engagement ensued.
After returning home, Jamal sent his brother Ahmad with the Christian battle-expert Harb Jaush to successfully attack the province of Dawaro. Despite his losses, Emperor Yeshaq was still able to continue field armies against Jamal. Sultan Jamal continued to advance further into the Abyssinian heartland. However, Jamal on hearing of Yeshaq's plan to send several large armies to attack three different areas of Adal (including the capital), returned to Adal, where he fought the Solomonic forces at Harjai and, according to al-Maqrizi, this is where the Emperor Yeshaq died in battle. The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date. Within a few years, however, Jamal was assassinated by either disloyal friends or cousins around 1432 or 1433, and was succeeded by his brother Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din. Sultan Badlay continued the campaigns of his younger brother and began several successful expeditions against the Christian empire. He reconquered Bali and began preparations of a major Adalite offensive into the Ethiopian Highlands. He successfully collected funding from surrounding Muslim kingdoms as far away as the Sultanate of Mogadishu.Richard Gray, The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 4. p. 155. However, this ambitious campaign ended in disaster when Emperor Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Badlay at the Battle of Gomit and pursued the retreating Adalites all the way to the Awash River.
Following the defeat and death of Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din at the Battle of Gomit, the next Sultan of Adal, Muhammad ibn Badlay, submitted to Emperor Baeda Maryam I and started paying annual tribute to the Ethiopian Empire with which he secure peace. Adal's , who administered the provinces, interpreted the agreement as a betrayal of their independence and a retreat from the polity's long-standing policy of resistance to Abyssinian incursions. Emir Laday Usman of Harar subsequently marched to Dakkar and seized power in 1471. However, Usman did not dismiss the Sultan from office, but instead gave him a ceremonial position while retaining the real power for himself. Adal now came under the leadership of a powerful Emir who governed from the palace of a nominal Sultan. Usman would route emperor Baeda Maryam's troops in battle. Historian Mohammed Hassen states Adal Sultans had lost control of the state to Harar's aristocracy. Emperor Na'od and Sultan Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din tried to remain at peace, but their efforts were nullified by the raids which Emir Mahfuz constantly made into Christian territory. Na'od who was determined to eliminate this threat, organized a large army and led it against the Emir, although the Emperor was victorious he was eventually killed in battle against the Adalites. Emperor Dawit II (Lebna Dengel) would soon succeed the throne, Mahfuz having recovered from his defeat renewed raids against the frontier provinces. He was stimulated by emissaries from Arabia who proclaimed the jihad (holy war), presented him with a green standard and brought in arms and trained men from Yemen. In 1516, Emir Mahfuz would then launch an invasion of Fatagar, Lebna Dengel was prepared and organized a successful ambush, the Adalites were defeated and Mahfuz was killed in battle. Lebna Dengel then moved into Adal where he sacked the city of Dakkar. Around the same time a Portuguese fleet surprised Zeila whilst its garrison was away with Mahfuz, the Portuguese then burnt down the port city.
After the victory of Lebna Dengel, the internal weaknesses of the Adal Sultanate soon revealed themselves. The older generation of the Muslims headed by the Walashma dynasty, indifferent to religion and ready to come to terms with Abyssinia, were staunchly opposed by the Harari people and Harla religious aristocracy led by fanatic warlike emirs. The Sultan Muhammad was assassinated in 1518 and Adal was torn apart by intestinal struggles in which five sultans succeeded each other in two years. But at last, a matured and powerful leader called Garad Abun Adashe assumed power and brought order out of chaos. However, Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, who had transferred the capital from Dakkar to Harar in 1520, profiting off the prestige that the hereditary monarchy still held, recruited bands of Somali nomads, ambushed Abun Adashe at Zeila and killed him in 1525. Many people went to join the force of a young rebel named Ahmad ibn Ibrahim, who claimed revenge for Garad Abogn. Ahmad did not immediately attempt conclusions with Sultan Abu Bakr, but retired to Hubat to build up his strength. Ahmad ibn Ibrahim would eventually kill Sultan Abu Bakr in battle, and replaced him with Abu Bakr's younger brother Umar Din as his puppet. Once in complete control, he then could then turn to the task he felt himself was divinely appoint to undertake, the conquest of Abyssinia. Fervor for the jihad had not yet overcome the forces inherent in nomadic life, Ahmad had to undertake several campaigns to restore order in the Somali territory which would constitute his manpower reserve. He then organized a heterogenous mass of tribes into a powerful army, inflamed by the fanatical zeal of jihad..Jeremy Black, Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p. 9.
The Adalites were passionately interested in converting newly occupied territories. The impression given in the Muslim chronicles is that almost all of the Christian Abyssinians had embraced Islam out of expediency. Among them was the governor of Ifat who wrote to the Imam:
However, in the integral regions of the Ethiopian Empire, such as Bete Amhara, Tigray province and Shewa, the local population bitterly resisted the Adalite occupation. Some preferred death over denying their faith, among them were two Amhara people chiefs who were brought before the Imam in Debre Berhan. Arab Faqīh describes the encounter:
In 1541 a small Portuguese contingent landed in Massawa and soon all of Tigray declared for the monarchy, the Imam was defeated in several major engagements by the Portuguese and was forced to flee to Raya Kobo with his heavily demoralized followers. He sent a request to the Ottoman Empire for reinforcements of Turkish, Albanian and Arab musketeers to stabilize his troops. He then took the offensive attacking the Portuguese camp at Wolfa where he killed their commander, Cristóvão da Gama, and 200 of their rank and file. The Imam then dismissed most of his foreign contingent and returned to his headquarters at Lake Tana. The surviving Portuguese were able to meet up with Gelawdewos and his army at the Simien Mountains. The Emperor did not hesitate to take the offensive and won a major victory at the Battle of Wayna Daga when the fate of Abyssinia was decided by the death of the Imam and the flight of his army. The invasion force collapsed like a house of cards and all the Abyssinians who had been cowed by the invaders returned to their former allegiance, the reconquest of Christian territories proceeded without encountering any effective opposition.
Nur was succeeded by Uthman the Abyssinian, who relaxed his predecessor's pro-Islamic policy and signed an infamous and humiliating peace treaty with the Oromos. The treaty stated that the Oromos can freely enter to the Muslim markets and purchase goods at less than the current market price. This angered many Muslims and led to a rebellion, in which he was overthrown and replaced by Talha Abbas in 1569. Tahla would rule for only three years before being overthrown by some of his very fanatic subjects who were intent on another jihad or holy war against the Christians. He was replaced by Uthman's grandson Muhammad ibn Nasir who soon carried out an expedition against the Ethiopian Empire, however this campaign would end in total disaster. As soon as the army left Harar the Oromo ravaged the countryside, up to the walls of the city. Muhammad ibn Nasir was also defeated and killed at the Battle of Webi River, thus permanently ending Adal aggression towards Ethiopia.J.S. Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia, pp. 96 Muhammad's successor, Mansur ibn Muhammad, fought a fierce war against the Oromos, but was unable to defeat them. Mansur would also successfully reconquer Asaita and Zeila. The tension was all the greater after the death of Nur Ibn Mujahid, the disappearance of the last of the Walashma monarch also opened a tough competition for power between emirs and descendants of Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim. Ultimately, they won in April 1576, Muhammad Gasa took the title of Imam, thus combining the political power of the Sultan and the religious responsibility of guiding the community, he then relocated the capital to the oasis of Asaita in 1577, establishing the Imamate of Aussa.
The Imamate of Aussa declined gradually in the next century and was destroyed by the neighboring Afar people nomads who made Asaita their capital. In the seventeenth century the induction of Harla people and Doba populations into Afar identity would lead to the emergence of Aussa Sultanate. Enrico Cerulli asserts that rulers of Zaila and Harar had effectively made themselves independent with the latter establishing the Emirate of Harar. For two centuries, Adal Sultanate had claimed the role of spreading Islam in Ethiopia, but it now had to transition into an uncivilized state ruled by the Bedouin Dankalis, whom the Semitic or semiticized Adal aristocracy regarded merely as a group designated to plunder caravans.
Scholar Christopher Ehret noted that the majority of the inhabitants of the Adal Sultanate's primary territories were integrated into the Oromos, with the exception of small groups of Harari and Argobba speakers of Semitic languages.
According to Professor Lapiso Delebo, the contemporary Harari people are heirs to the ancient Semitic speaking peoples of the Adal region. Adal Sultanate is identified as a Harari state by anthropologist Abebe Kifleyesus. Historians state the language spoken by the people of Adal as well as its rulers the Imams and Sultans would closely resemble contemporary Harari language. Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde and others state the Walasma led Sultanates of Ifat and Adal primarily included the Ethiopian Semitic speaking Argobba and Harari people, it later expanded to comprise Afar and Somali peoples. Between the late 1400s to mid 1500s there was a large scale migration of Hadhrami people into Adal.
Among the earliest mentions of the Somali by name has come through a victory poem written by Emperor Yeshaq I of Abyssinia against the king of Adal, as the Simur are said to have submitted and paid tribute. As Taddesse Tamrat writes: "Dr Enrico Cerulli has shown that Simur was an Old Harari name for the Somali, who are still known by them as Tumur. Hence, it is most probable that the mention of the Somali and the Simur in relation to Yishaq refers to the king's military campaigns against Adal, where the Somali seem to have constituted a major section of the population.".
According to Leo Africanus (1526) and George Sale (1760), the Adelites were of a tawny brown or olive complexion on the northern littoral, and grew swarthier towards the southern interior. They generally had long, lank hair. Most wore a cotton sarong but no headpiece or sandals, with many glass and amber trinkets around their necks, wrists, arms and ankles. The king and other aristocrats often donned instead a body-length garment topped with a headdress. All were Muslims. In the southern hinterland, the Adelites lived beside pagan "", with whom they bartered various commodities.
The province also grew the stimulant plant Khat. Which was exported to Yemen. Adal was abundant in large numbers of cattle, sheep, and some goats. There was also chickens. Both buffaloes and wild fowl were sometimes hunted. The province had a great reputation for producing butter and honey.
Whereas provinces such as Bale, surrounding regions of Shebelle River was known for it cotton cultivation and an age old weaving industry, while the Elekere region produced salt which was an important trading item.Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays by Ulrich Braukämper Page 79
Zeila was a wealthy city and abundantly supplied with provisions. It possessed grain, meat, oil, honey and wax. Furthermore, the citizens had many horses and reared cattle of all kinds, as a result they had plenty of butter, milk and flesh, as well as a great store of millet, barley and fruits; all of which was exported to Aden. The port city was so well supplied with victuals that it exported it's surplus to Aden, Jeddah, Mecca and "All Arabia" which then was dependent on the supplies/produce from the city which they favoured above all. Zeila was described as a "Port of much provisions for Aden, and all parts of Arabia and many countries and Kingdoms".
The Principal exports, according the Portuguese writer Corsali, were gold, ivory and slaves. A "great number" of the latter was captured from the Ethiopian Empire, then were exported through the port of Zeila to Persia, Arabia, Egypt and India.
As a result of this flourishing trade, the citizens of Zeila accordingly lived "extremely well" and the city was well built guarded by many soldiers on both foot and horses.
The kingdoms agricultural and other produce was not only abundant but also very cheap according to Maqrizi thirty pounds of meat sold for only half a dirhem, while for only four dirhems you could purchase a bunch of about 100 Damascus grapes.
Trade on the upland river valleys themselves connected with the coast to the interior markets. Created a lucrative caravan trade route between Ethiopian interior, the Hararghe highlands, Eastern Lowlands and the coastal cities such as Zeila and Berbera.Great Events from History: The Renaissance & early modern era, 1454-1600, Volum 1 By Christina J. Moose Page 94 The trade from the interior was also important for the reason that included gold from the Ethiopian territories in the west, including Damot and an unidentified district called Siham. The rare metal sold for 80 to 120 dirhems per ounce. The whole empire and the wider region was interdependent on each other and formed a single economy and at the same time a cultural unit interconnected with several important trade routes upon which the economy and the welfare of the whole area depended.
The nobility of Adal also apparently had a fair taste for luxury, the commercial relations that existed between the Adal Sultanate and the rulers of the Arab peninsula allowed Muslims to obtain luxury items that Christian Ethiopians, whose relations with the outside world were still blocked, could not acquire, a Christian document describing Sultan Badlay relates:
"And the robes of and those of his leaders were adorned with silver and shone on all sides. And the dagger which he the carried at his side was richly adorned with gold and precious stones; and his amulet was adorned with drops of gold; and the inscriptions on the amulet were of gold paint. And his parasol came from the land of Syria and it was such beautiful work that those who looked at it marveled, and winged serpents were painted on it."During its existence, Adal had relations and engaged in trade with other polities in Northeast Africa, the Near East, Europe and South Asia. Many of the historic cities in the Horn of Africa such as Abasa, Amud, Awbare and Berbera flourished under its reign with courtyard, , , defensive wall and . Adal attained its peak in the 14th century, trading in slaves, ivory and other commodities with Ethiopian Empire and kingdoms in Arabia through its chief port of Zeila. The cities of the empire imported intricately coloured glass bracelets and Chinese celadon for palace and home decoration.The Archaeology of Islam in Sub Saharan Africa, p. 72/73 Adal also used imported currency such as Egyptian dinars and dirhems.
Under Imam Ahmed's leadership, the military was reorganized into three flexible units, giving Adal a strategic advantage. This superior organization contrasted sharply with the rigid and poorly commanded Abyssinian forces. (2025). 9780521195102, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521195102 The first group was the Malassay, the elite unit of military warriors in the Adal army which according to several historians consisted of mainly the Harari people ethnicity. The title Malassay or Malachai (Portuguese spelling) often became synonymous with Muslims in Ethiopia to outsiders, but contrary to popular beliefs it did not denote a tribe or clan. Reading the Futūḥ al-Ḥabaša, the Malasāy appear as the basic unit of the army of the imām. Unlike the other groups that make up this army, the Malasāy were a social group and not a tribe or a clan. Unlike the Balaw, Somali or Ḥarla, a man Malasāy is not born. He obtained this title after demonstrating his military capabilities. ‘Arab Faqīh gives a relatively precise definition of what he means by "malasāy:
The second wing consisted entirely of Somalis, commanded by the Imam's brother-in-law Matan. The third wing comprised troops from the Afar, Harla, Harari, and Argobba people, with each led by their hereditary leader. During each battle, the wings were separated with one on the right and left, while the Malassay were positioned in the middle. At crucial moments, the Malassay supported both wings and prevented troops from abandoning the field.
The Adal soldiers donned elaborate and steel armour made up of chain-mail with overlapping tiers.Conquest of Abyssinia by Shibab ad-Din pg 43 The Cavalry of Adal wore protective helmets that covered the entire face except for the eyes, and breastplates on their body, while they harnessed their horses in a similar fashion. In siege warfare, ladders were employed to scale buildings and other high positions such as hills and mountains.Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture - Page 42
M. Hassan states:
M. Lewis writes:
Ethnic Somalis are stated to be the majority of the army according to the Oxford History of Islam:
According to Merid Wolde Aregay:
Archaeological excavations in the late 19th century and early 20th century at over fourteen sites in the vicinity of Borama in modern-day northwestern Somaliland unearthed, among other artefacts, silver coins identified as having been derived from Qaitbay (1468–89), the eighteenth Burji dynasty Burgi dynasty Sultan of Egypt.Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain), The Geographical Journal, Volume 87, (Royal Geographical Society: 1936), p.301. Most of these finds are associated with the medieval Adal Sultanate.Bernard Samuel Myers, ed., Encyclopedia of World Art, Volume 13, (McGraw-Hill: 1959), p.xcii. They were sent to the British Museum for preservation shortly after their discovery.
In 1950, the British Somaliland protectorate government commissioned an archaeological survey in twelve desert towns in present-day Republic of Somaliland, near the border with Ethiopia. According to the expedition team, the sites yielded the most salient evidence of late medieval period affluence. They contained ruins of what were evidently once large cities belonging to the Adal Sultanate. Towns such as Awbare, Awbube, Amud, Abasa and Gogesa, featured between 200 and 300 stone houses. The walls of certain sites still reportedly stood 18 meters high. Excavations in the area yielded 26 , unlike the copper pieces that were more common in polities below the Horn region. The earliest of these recovered coins had been minted by Sultan Barquq (1382–99), also of the Egyptian Burji dynasty, and the latest were again Sultan Qaitbay issues. All of the pieces had been struck in either Cairo or Damascus. A few were also discovered during the expedition, making the area the only place in the wider region to yield such pieces. Besides coinage, high quality porcelain was recovered from the Adal sites. The fine celadon ware was found either lying on the surface, or buried at a depth of seven and a half inches, or ensconced within dense four to five feet high. Among the artefacts were grey granular with a cracked blue-green or sea-green glaze, and white crystalline fragments with an uncracked green-white glaze. Some Ming dynasty ware was also discovered, including many early Ming blue-and-white bowl sherds. They were adorned with tendril scrolls on a bluish ground and ornamented with black spotting, while other bowls had floral patterns outlined by grey or black-blue designs. Additionally, a few Ming red-and-white sherds were found, as well as white porcelain fragments with bluish highlights. The Adal sites appeared to reach an Indian Ocean terminus at the Sa'ad ad-Din Islands, named for Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din II of the Ifat Sultanate.
According to French people historian Jean Doresse, the only city that has endured to the present day from the extensive kingdom of Adal is Harar, which gained its independence, while the many towns that once thrived now exist in ruins within the Somalis desert.
Additionally, local tradition identifies the archaeological site of Tiya in central Ethiopia as Yegragn Dingay ("Gran's stone") in reference to Imam Al-Ghazi. According to Joussaume (1995), who led archaeological work there, the site is relatively recent. It has been dated to between the 11th and 13th centuries CE. Tiya contains a number of pillars, including anthropomorphic and non-anthropomorphic/non-phallic stele. Flat in form, these structures are characterized by distinctive, elaborate decorations, among which are swords, a standing human figure with arms akimbo, and plant-like symbols.
| 1 | Sulṭān SabiradDīn SaʿadadDīn | 1415–1422 | Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, He returned to the Horn of Africa from Yemen to reclaim his father's realm. He defeated the Ethiopians and proclaimed himself "King of Adal". He subsequently became the first ruler and founder of the new Adal dynasty. |
| 2 | Sulṭān Mansur SaʿadadDīn | 1422–1424 | Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed. Defeated the Abyssinians at their royal seat of Yadeya, captured and killed the Solomonic Emperor Dawit. The tides of war changed him and his brother Muhammad was eventually captured by Yeshaq |
| 3 | Sulṭān JamaladDīn SaʿadadDīn | 1424–1433 | He increased the riches of Adal, brought numerous land under its rule and during his reign a multitude of Amhara Christians embraced Islam. He won important battles against the Abyssinians and raided deep into their interior as far as the Blue Nile before his forces being defeated after an exhausted pursuit back to protect the capital. Emperor Yeshaq would also die in battle during his Adal campaign. |
| 4 | Sulṭān Sihab ad-Din Ahmad Badlay "Arwe Badlay" | 1433–1445 | Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, known to the Abyssinians as "Arwe Badlay" ("Badlay the Monster"). Badlay turned the tide of war against the Abyssinians and decisively defeated the forces of Emperor Yeshaq and expanded the power & reach of Adal to the entire northern seaboard. Managed to capture Abyssinian frontier provinces and brought numerous Christian land under his rult. Badlay founded a new capital at Dakkar in the Adal region, near Harar. He was killed in battle after he had launched a jihad to invade and occupy Abyssinia after the Hadiya Sultanate an Adal tributary state was occupied by emperor Zara Yaqob. |
| 5 | Sulṭān Maḥamed AḥmedudDīn | 1445–1472 | Son of AḥmedudDīn "Badlay" SaʿadadDīn, Maḥamed asked for help from the Mameluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1452, though this assistance was not forthcoming. He ended up signing a very short-lived truce with Baeda Maryam which was nullified by his son Usman who subsequently defeated the emperors troops in battle. |
| 6 | Sulṭān ShamsadDin Maḥamed | 1472–1488 | Son of Maḥamed AḥmedudDīn, he was attacked by Emperor Eskender of Abyssinia in 1479, who sacked Dakkar and destroyed much of the city, though the Abyssinians failed to occupy the city and were ambushed on the way home with heavy losses and no more incursions happened for the remainder of Eskender's reign. Eskender and his succeeding brother Na'od would later be killed in battle against emir Mahfuz's raiding parties. |
| 7 | Sulṭān Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn | 1488–1518 | Great-grandson of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed of Ifat, he continued to fight to liberate Dawaro along with Garad Mahfuz of Zeila. He was assassinated after a disastrous campaign in 1518 and the death of Garad Maḥfūẓ. |
| 8 | Emir Abun Adashe | 1518–1525 | During his reign conflict ensued between the Amīrs and the Sultans for 7 years. Abun was de facto ruler of Adal due to his popularity in the state defending the frontier against Abyssinian raiding parties, this popularity would lead to resentment from the Adal sultan. |
| 9 | Sulṭān Abūbakar Maḥamed | 1525–1526 | He killed Garād Abūn but Garād Abūn's cousin Imām Aḥmed avenged his cousin's death and killed him. While Garād Abūn ruled in Harar, Abūbakar Maḥamed was centered in Dakkar however after killing Garad Abun, Abubakar moved the Adal Sultanate capital to Harar in 1520. |
| 10 | Sulṭān Umar Din | 1526–1553 | Son of Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn, Imām Aḥmed put Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn's young son ʿUmarDīn on the throne as puppet king in Imām Aḥmed's capital at Harar. This essentially is the end of the Walashma dynasty as a ruling dynasty in all but name, though the dynasty hobbled on in a de jure capacity. Many king lists don't even bother with Walashma rulers after this and just list Imām Aḥmed and then Amīr Nūr Mujahid. |
| 11 | Sulṭān ʿAli ʿUmarDīn | 1553–1555 | Son of ʿUmarDīn Maḥamed |
| 12 | Sulṭān Barakat ʿUmarDīn | 1555–1559 | Son of ʿUmarDīn Maḥamed, last of the Walashma Sultans, assisted Amīr Nūr Mujahid in his attempt to retake Dawaro. He was killed defending Harar from Emperor Gelawdewos, ending the dynasty. |
| 13 | Amīr Nūr "Dhuhi-Suha" ʿAli | 1559–1567 | The Amir of Harar. The walls that surround Harar were built during his reign and he had convinced the people of Harar (the Harla) to abandon their clan and tribal identities and become one people, the Harari nation. Emperor Gelawdewos was defeated in battle and killed by emir Nur at the Battle of Fatagar |
| 14 | Amīr ʿIsmān "AlḤabashi" | 1567–1569 | A former Abyssinian slave of Amīr Nūr, he was murdered shortly after becoming Sultan. |
| 15 | Sulṭān Tahla Abbas | 1569–1571 | Son of Wazir ʿAbbās Abūn and grandson of Garād Abūn ʿAdādshe. Overthrown and replaced by Nasir ibn Uthman. |
| 16 | Sulṭān Nāssir ʿIsmān | 1571–1572 | Son of Amīr ʿIsmān AlḤabashi. |
| 17 | Sulṭān Maḥamed Nāssir | 1572–1576 | Grandson of Amīr ʿIsmān AlḤabashi. He was executed by Emperor Sarsa Dengel after the Battle of Hadiya. The Harari military was decimated by Ethiopian forces ending Adal's aggression towards Ethiopia permanently. The Oromo simultaneously attacked several villages in Hararghe while the main Harar army was away leading to further weakening of the sultanate. |
| 18 | Amir Mansūr Maḥamed | 1576–1577 | Son of Sulṭān Maḥamed Nāssir. He successfully defeated several Oromo invasions and reclaimed territory including Zeila and Asaita. |
| 19 | Imām Muhammad Gasa | 1577 | A relative of Imām Aḥmed, he moved the capital to Awsa and founded the Imāmātē of Awsa. He was killed in battle with the Oromo in 1583. |
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